Weaving Gender Equity

The following is a list of research articles and books that provide an overview to issues of equity in education:

American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (1998). Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fail Our Children. Washington, D.C.: Author. To order call: 1-800-225-9998 ext. 459.

Six years after the landmark How Schools Shortchange Girls, the AAUW revisits American schools to study how girls are faring. Gender Gaps contains the latest body of research on gender equity in the classroom, with recommendations for how to close the persisting gaps between girls and boys in public schools. The book reveals disparities between the types of mathematics classes boys and girls take, with girls less likely to enroll in advanced math courses in high school.

American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (1992). The AAUW Report: Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America. Washington, D.C.: Author. To order call: 1-800-225-9998 ext. 459.

This first in a series of AAUW reports looks at course taking patterns, classroom practice, standardized testing, and curricular bias, among other issues, in an effort to catalogue gender differences in education. After defining the ways that girls are dealt out of the educational system, the report offers forty strategies for decreasing disparities between boys and girls.

Bae, Yupin, Susan Choy, Claire Geddes, Jennifer Sable, and Thomas Snyder. (2000). Trends in Educational Equity of Girls and Women. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsin.

Starting in preschool and stretching on through post-secondary education, the statistics include measures of education achievement, psychological factors, involvement in after-school activities, course taking patterns, curriculum issues, and educational outcomes, among other things. While most of the indicators focus on differences between girls and boys, some break this down further to look at the differences between girls of various races.

Campbell, Patricia and Beatriz Chu Clewell. (1999). "Science, Math, and Girls." Education Week, Vol. 19 (2), 50 and 53.

This look at the most recent statistics related to gender and math achievement shows disparities favoring boys in SAT-Math, NAEP, and AP scores. Boys received "advanced" and "proficient" scores at higher rates than girls on the NAEP, scored on average 35 points higher on the SAT-Math, and took more AP computer science and physics classes. Moreover, women are still underrepresented within some higher education fields, with on 17 percent of bachelor's degrees in engineering going to women. The authors caution that while girls have made gains in math achievement and participation, there is still a long way to go toward achieving full participation in science, mathematics, and engineering careers.

Campbell, Patricia and Edward Silver. (1999). Teaching and Learning Mathematics in Poor Communities. Report from the Task Force on Mathematics Teaching and Learning in Poor Communities: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Available at:http://www.nctm.org

Answering to the growing number of children living in poverty and the current disparities in mathematics achievement between poor and non-poor students, the Task Force laid out some of the reasons for this disparity and suggested strategies for closing the gap. "Home atmosphere," lack of access to quality mathematics curriculum and instruction, teaching to standardized tests, and differences in mathematical content taught to students in poor versus non-poor classrooms were all cited as reasons for the disparities in achievement. Some methods for improving student learning in poor communities were: to provide better and more extensive teacher enhancement when implementing reform math curriculum; increase teachers' own mathematical content knowledge; use assessment as an impetus for implementing quality mathematics curricula; and provide students in poor schools with instructional approaches that emphasize a conceptual understanding of mathematics.

Campbell, Patricia and Jennifer Storo. (1994). "Girls Are...Boys Are...: Myths, Stereotypes, & Gender Differences." Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Available at: http://www.campbell-kibler.com/

This pamphlet aims to debunk some of the myths regarding girls' and boys' achievement in math and science. It talks about the ways in which these myths (such as "real" women don't do math) play out within the educational system (girls who think of math as a "male thing" take fewer advanced classes) , and offers solutions for teachers and parents (challenge people who support this myth).

Cohen, Jody and Sukey Blanc. (1996). Girls in the Middle: Working to Succeed in School. Washington, D.C.: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. To order call: 1-800-225-9998 ext. 459

This AAUW report looks at how adolescent girls negotiate school, with a focus on how individuals girls made choices in complex situations. By studying what has worked in middle schools, this report indicates some of the strategies schools around the country have used to create an equitable learning climate.

Cole, Nancy S. (1997). The ETS Gender Study: How Females and Males Perform in Educational Settings. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

This national survey looked at the results of more than 400 different tests in a variety of subject areas for students in grades 4-12. In mathematics, gender differences grew larger as students moved to higher grades. Only minor differences appeared among fourth graders; by grade 12 boys scored higher on tests of math computation, math concepts, spatial skills, and mechanics/electronics.

College Board. (1999). Reaching the Top: A Report of the National Task Force on Minority High Achievement. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

Looking at the low numbers of African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans among high achieving students, the Task Force set out to uncover some of the reasons why this disparity exists and to propose solutions to this issue. Students from low-income homes and whose parents have little formal education (who tend to be disproportionately people of color) are much more likely to be low achievers. This trend will only worsen as the numbers of Latino and African American students whose parents don't hold a high school diploma is projected to grow. Another reason for low achievement is the high student mobility rate in schools serving large numbers of disadvantaged students. The report ends with recommendations for action for policy makers, educators, parents, and others.

Cooney, Thomas, Ed. (1990). Teaching and Learning Mathematics in the 1990s. Reston, VA: NCTM.

Several chapters from this volume highlight some of the key issues in making mathematics accessible to all children. An article by Walter Secada calls out for the need to expose all students to more advanced forms of mathematics, to deal with the resegregation of schools, to counsel students of color to continue on in advanced math classes, and to include multicultural referants in curricula. Lee Stiff describes the promise of the NCTM Standards for students of color by showing how the cultures of Latino, Black, and Asian groups fit in with many of the principles of the Standards. Gilbert Cuevas discusses strategies teachers can use to connect with language minority students, such as being familiar with each students' educational and cultural background, reviewing new terms several times, giving students many opportunities to talk about mathematics, and stressing reading and writing skills during math lessons. Brian Donovan points to the role of cultural power in defining how mathematics is taught and learned in school.

Cuevas, G. and M. Driscoll, Eds. (1993). Reaching All Students With Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. To order call: 1-800-235-7566.

With an eye toward NCTM's goal of making mathematics accessible to all students, this book focuses on strategies for including students from underrepresented groups in high quality learning. Particular attention is paid to students from diverse backgrounds who have traditionally been marginalized in the mathematics classroom.

Fennema, Elizabeth and Gilah Leder, Eds. (1990). Mathematics and Gender. New York: Teachers College Press.

This collection of essays pulls together some of the theories surrounding differing participation and achievement levels between boys and girls in mathematics. Attention is paid to biology, attribution, teacher-student interactions, and learning styles. Article titles from the book include: "Spatial Skills, Gender, and Mathematics," "Classrooms, Teachers, and Gender Differences in Mathematics," "Internal Influences on Gender Differences in Mathematics," and "Teachers' Beliefs and Gender Differences in Mathematics."

Hansen, Sunny, Joyce Walker, and Barbara Flom. (1995).Growing Smart: What's Working for Girls in School. Washington, D.C.: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. To order call: 1-800-225-9998 ext. 459.

A synthesis of more than 500 studies and reports, Growing Smart pulls together some of the common denominators from programs that have successfully engaged K-12 girls in learning. It lays out five themes that emerged repeatedly from the programs: (1) celebrate girls' strong identities; (2) respect girls as central players; (3) connect girls to caring adults; (4) ensure girls' participation and success; and (5) empower girls to realize their dreams. The authors offer action strategies as well as details about specific programs of interest (including several with a MST focus).

Hanson, Kathleen (1997). "Gender, Discourse, and Technology." Education Development Center; Center for Equity and Cultural Diversity.

Despite the emphasis and importance placed on technology within the United States, technology is not equally accessible to all sections of society. Computers are disproportionately seen in upper and middle class households, with the access and availability of technology absent in poorer populations. Instead of focusing this problem on the student, a cultural context needs to be developed to understand discrepancies in the accessibility of technology. This issue is addressed by defining technology and relating it to race, gender and class, as well as looking at workplace and classroom cultures. Topics to address, such as computer games and violence, and concrete suggestions are provided for teachers and parents to analyze and implement so that technology can be put in a cultural context and opportunities for change can be realized.

Lee, Valerie, Xianglei Chen, and Becky Smerdon. (1996). The Influence of School Climate on Gender Differences in the Achievement and Engagement of Young Adolescents. Washington, D.C.: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation.

Defining school climate to include three areas - teaching and learning climate, normative climate, and composition/structure climate - this study looked at the effects of each on girls' achievement in almost 400 schools. Larger gender differences favoring males in science and social studies were found in schools with more positive teacher-student relations. Schools with higher levels of parental involvement revealed a disadvantage for girls in math.

Levi, Linda (2000, October). "Gender Equity in Mathematics Education". Research into Practice.

Studying the K-12 school experience in mathematics education can help to determine why there are gender inequities in future mathematics participation. Three different roles that teachers play in their attempt to address gender equity in math are highlighted. Teachers seem to either try to provide equal opportunities and respect differences; try to ensure that girls and boys have the same experience; or attempt to compensate for gender differences in society. Each technique is analyzed and critiqued and an activity sheet on gender equity in math is provided for teachers to complete. The intent is to have teachers form small groups and share what they filled out so as to initiate discussion of equity issues.

National Center for Educational Statistics (September 2000). Entry and Persistence of Women and Minorities in College Science and Engineering Education. Washington, D.C.: Author.

There are gaps related to gender and race/ethnicity representation in post-secondary science and engineering (S&E) education. A study was conducted to examine these gaps. An analysis of the link between high school experience and entrance into post-secondary education in S&E was performed, as well as an analysis of persistence and degree attainment of a post-secondary degree in S&E as it relates to underrepresented groups and gender. Policy issues are illuminated to help address equity concerns of entry and persistence in S&E programs.

National Center for Education Statistics. (1997). "Women in Mathematics and Science." Findings from the Condition of Education 1997. Washington, D.C.: Author. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs97/97982.html

Some of the findings related to mathematics from this study include: no measurable difference in proficiency between boys and girls ages 9 and 13; 17-year-old girls scored lower than their male peers; as early as eighth grade boys were more than twice as likely to aspire to math-related careers as girls; females were more likely than males to say they had been advised against taking advanced math courses in high school; students of both genders report a similar liking of mathematics.

National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education. (1997). Title IX at 25: Report Card on Gender Equity. Washington, D.C.: Author.

This book analyzes how girls fare across all subject areas. Information on mathematics shows girls as proficient as boys through most grade levels, but still lagging behind on SAT-M scores. Girls also report less confidence in math, which may be correlated with their decreased interest in math during post-secondary study. This decreased interest may also be due to a hostile environment.

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1997). Science and Mathematics for All Students: It's Just Good Teaching. Portland, OR: Author. Available at: http://www.nwrel.org/msec/pub.html

This paper rests on the premise that many of the strategies designed to make classrooms more equitable are simply ones that are good teaching practices for all students. Some of these include holding high expectations for all students, creating a welcoming classroom environment that celebrates diversity, using varied teaching strategies, and making connections between new ideas and students' personal experiences. Areas of gender and racial equity are covered through information related to learning styles, classroom interactions, ability grouping/tracking, cooperative learning, hands-on activities, writing, and single-sex grouping.

Ogbu, John. (1994). "Overcoming Racial Barriers to Equal Access." in John Goodland and Pamela Keating (Eds.), Access to Knowledge: The Continuing Agenda for Our Nation's Schools. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

Ogbu distinguishes between two types of racial minorities in the United States: immigrant, or voluntary, minorities (e.g. the Chinese in Stockton, CA and the Punjabi Indians in Valleyside, CA), and caste-like, or involuntary, minorities (e.g. Black Americans who were brought to the U.S. as slaves and American Indians). Immigrants do not tend to see success in school as acculturation or loss of culture in the same way that involuntary minorities do. They tend to accept the White middle class ideal that anyone can get ahead through hard work and good education, whereas involuntary minorities do not see many job opportunities open to them no matter how hard they work. Immigrants also tend to trust White people and public schools more than involuntary minorities do. These are some of the reasons the author cites for the differences in school achievement between members of the two categories. He also claims that the job ceiling many Black Americans face once they enter the workforce as well as the inferior education they have historically received, among other factors, catalyze Black students into adaptive/coping responses that create further barriers to school success.

Ortiz-Franco, Luis, Norma Hernandez, and Yolanda De La Cruz, Eds. (1999). Perspectives on Latinos. Part of Walter Secada (Series Ed.),"Changing the Faces of Mathematics." Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. To order call: 1-800-235-7566.

The articles collected in this volume cover the terrain of how Latino students are faring in mathematics in the 1990s, with special emphasis placed on the experiences of Latinos in standards-based classrooms. Divided into five sections, the book covers: socioeconomic issues; language issues; teaching-learning aids; staff development; and intervention programs. The first two sections provide a comprehensive overview of many of the issues Latino students face in the mathematics classroom. Many of the articles also include suggestions for classroom practices, derived from teachers' own experiences as well as research findings. The final section on interventions presents successful program models used throughout the United States.

Reese, Clyde, Karen Miller, John Mazzeo, and John Dossey. (1997). NAEP 1996 Mathematics Report Card for the Nation and the States. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics.

The NAEP mathematics assessment utilizes a NCTM standards-based framework with children in grades four, eight, and twelve. Major findings from the 1996 assessment reveal racial, economic, and gender differences in achievement. While no difference was found for girls and boys in grades eight and twelve, differences favoring boys did appear in grade four. Scores for White, Hispanic, and Native American students stood below those of White students. A positive correlation was found between students' scores and parents' education level. Four- and eighth-grade students receiving Title I assistance had lower scale scores than those who didn't qualify for Title I.

Rousso, Harilyn & Webmeyer, Michael L. (Eds.). (2001). Double jeopardy: Addressing gender equity in special education. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Girls and young women with disabilities are faced with discrimination and inequities in the education system. In comparison to disabled male counterparts or non-disabled females, disabled women are less likely to achieve equivalent vocational success upon leaving school. Issues such as biased curricula and inequitable student-teacher interactions are analyzed. Strategies and innovative programs are highlighted to help empower disabled youth.

Sadker, David and Myra. (1994) Failing at Fairness: How America's Schools Cheat Girls. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Using vignettes of classroom scenes, decades of research, and interviews with students, Failing at Fairness delves into the challenges and inequities confronting girls in U.S. schools. Covering topics such as self-esteem, student-teacher interactions, curriculum, and higher education, it exposes the ways in which bias, exclusion, and psychological factors play a role in limiting girls' and women's education.

Sadker, Myra and David, and Lynette Long. (1989). "Gender and Educational Equality." In James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee (Eds.), Multicultural Education: Issue and Perspectives. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

This overview of gender equity and education highlights some of the ways girls are disenfranchised from the learning process. It covers information such as curricular bias, calling on boys more than girls, asking boys more higher-level questions, and sex segregation in the classroom. The authors lay out the costs of sexism in school - such as girls being invisible members of classrooms and their reporting mathematics as less important and useful - and offer solutions to some of these dilemmas.

Schifter, Deborah (Ed.) (1996). "What's Happening in Math Class?" Volume 1. New York: Teachers College Press.

Four narratives by teachers are provided to illustrate and address issues of diversity in mathematics, the use of "mixed-ability grouping" and the concept of teaching mathematics to all students. Alissa Sheinbach talks about juggling her mainstreamed learning-disabled third and fourth grade students. Allen Gagnon, a teacher in an urban high school discusses his Spanish-speaking students. Margaret Riddle assesses the opportunities that "mixed-ability grouping" offers to the "math stars" among her fifth graders. The final narrative, written by teacher educator Rafaella Borasi, questions accepted definitions of "homogeneous" and "diversity" and how "student diversity" can be turned into an asset for mathematics instruction.

Schulman, Bonnie Jean (1994). "Implications of Feminist Critiques of Science for the Teaching of Mathematics and Science." Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, vol. 1, pp. 1-15.

Science and the scientific method have always been viewed as objective and rational. However, the author highlights a series of feminist critiques of science as gendered and biased and ultimately rooted within the framework of white male thought. If science is an ideology (that it's possible to know the world as a rational and orderly mechanism) then it is affected by language, culture and differing views of the natural world. Math as the language of science uses assumptions (givens) that are specific to culture and belief systems to solve problems and make logical deductions. The author intends to inform and initiate dialogue to address the way that math and science are taught and how education can be reformed to incorporate these feminist critiques. Themes discussed: science as ideology, math as the language of scientific thought, math as a gendered discourse, "culture is classification" and values of mathematics.

Secada, Walter G., Elizabeth Fennema, and Lisa Byrd Adajian, Eds. (1994). New Directions for Equity in Mathematics Education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

With a collection of fourteen articles, this volume tackles educational equity as it relates to gender, race, class, and linguistic minorities. Chapter titles include: "Social and critical dimensions for equity in mathematics"; "Redefining the 'girl problem in mathematics'"; "Gender and mathematics from a feminist standpoint"; and "Equity and mathematics education."

Silver, Edward and Patricia Ann Kenney, Eds. (2000). Results from the Seventh Mathematics Assessment of the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Chapters 3 and 4 tackle the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) findings as they pertain to race/ethnicity and gender. Black and Hispanic students narrowed the performance gap with White students from 1973-1996, yet large differences still exist, particularly with extended response or complex problem solving items. Students of all ethnicities reported similar course taking patterns, though Black and Hispanic students are underrepresented in higher-end mathematics courses. The amount of instruction time spent on mathematics was higher for all groups in grade 4 than in grade 8. Hispanic and White students in grade 8 were more likely than their Black peers to have teachers who emphasized reasoning and non-routine problem solving. In grade 4 Black and Hispanic students were more likely to be given multiple-choice tests than Whites. The only significant gender differences were found on the grade 4 mathematics exam, in favor of males. These differences appeared mostly within 3 strands - Measurement; Geometry and Spatial Sense; and Number Sense, Properties and Operations. Both males and females report a positive self-concept in mathematics in grade 4, but this declines in later years, with girls' self-concept dropping faster than boys'. Students' intention to continue studying mathematics follows a similar pattern.

Simon, Mary K. (2000). "The Evolving Role of Women in Mathematics." Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 93 (No. 9), 782-786.

An overview and investigation of women's traditionally limited involvement in mathematics is provided. Starting from the exclusion of women based on gender biases in 600 BCE to the present day gender gap in math and science, the author argues that there is still a need for accessibility, development and encouragement of women to enter the field. Notable female mathematicians are highlighted to show women to be capable of achieving and contributing to the field despite gender biases. Mathematics can enable women to partake in and effect current technologies and social change.

Strutchens, Marilyn, Martin Johnson, and William Tate, Eds. (2000). Perspectives on African Americans. Part of Walter Secada (Series Ed.),"Changing the Faces of Mathematics." Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. To order call: 1-800-235-7566.

The articles collected in this volume cover the terrain of how African American students are faring in mathematics in the 1990s, with special emphasis placed on the experiences of African Americans in standards-based classrooms. Divided into four sections, the book covers: research related to teaching and learning; instructional and curricular modifications; specific methodologies; and future mathematicians and mathematics educators. The initial articles set the stage by tackling stereotypes/beliefs and teacher expectations. Subsequent articles outline methods such as collaborative groups, "call and response" pedagogy, media connections, and using culturally relevant material. The final articles look at African Americans in higher education and the career world.

Sullivan, E. (1994). "Achieving Equity in Mathematics Education." Thrust for Educational Leadership, Vol. 23, 12-15.

The effects of sex-role stereotyping are discussed at length in this article. Through communicating more with males, asking males more complex questions, and praising males for the intellectual quality of their work, mathematics teachers send subtle messages to girls that translate into a decreased interest in math later on. The author concludes with steps that teachers and administrators can take to deal girls back in to the math classroom.

Tate, William. (1997). "Race-Ethnicity, SES, Gender, and Language Proficiency Trends in Mathematics Achievement: an Update." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 28 (6), 652-679.

This review of national trend studies, college admissions exams, and Advanced Placement tests details the current state of mathematics achievement in the U.S. for traditionally underrepresented groups. While achievement levels favored boys over girls slightly, the largest disparities were found between White students and students of color, between upper-/middle-class students and working-class/poor students, and between native English speakers and ESL students. Furthermore, while all groups improved basic skill levels over the last fifteen years, the large gaps among groups on complex mathematical thinking tasks result in continued inequality.

Tate, William (August 1995). "School Mathematics and African American Students: Thinking Seriously About Opportunity-to-Learn Standards." Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 31, (no. 3).

Critical race theory is used to analyze how political and conceptual frameworks affect opportunity-to-learn standards. Specifically addressed is how opportunity-to-learn standards affect equity issues in regard to mathematics standards for African American students. The history and theory of math reform and opportunity-to-learn standards are provided to enter a discussion about equity in math education. Topics analyzed are the purposes of math education, how math knowledge is acquired, fiscal conditions of schools, and cultural factors in math education to better understand how African Americans can best succeed in math. It is suggested that opportunity-to-learn standards should be based on; the rapid growth and change in mathematics; constructivist principles of learning; the concept of fiscal adequacy; and cultural factors that influence mathematics.

WEEA Digest. (2000). Gender Equity for Males. Newton, MA: Author. To order call: 1-800-793-5076.

This issue of the Women's Education Equity Act Digest addresses gender equity in education for males. The focus is on definitions and concepts of masculinity in respect to traditional gender roles, academic achievement, and violence in schools as well as the break down of stereotypes of African American male behavior.

WEEA Digest. (2000). Connecting Gender and Disability. Newton, MA: Author. To order call: 1-800-793-5076

This digest summarizes the status of girls and women with disabilities, the challenges an discrimination they face - as females and as persons with disabilities - and how school systems can improve education. This comprehensive perspective unites both the gender equity and disability communities.

Wrigley, Julia, Ed. (1992). Education and Gender Equality. Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press.

Looking at education from an international perspective, this book tackles four topic areas: the role of the state and public policy in shaping education, gender and social relations in the classroom, the social context of learning, and the link between families and schools. Many of the articles look at the intersection of gender, race, and/or class in classrooms around the world. Article titles include: "Gender and Education in the Welfare State," "Race and the Schooling of Young Girls," "Opportunity and Performance: a Sociological Explanation for Gender Differences in Mathematics," and "Gender Differences in Parental Involvement in Schooling."