Weaving Gender Equity

The following is a list of research articles and books related to pedagogy:

Auger, Jessie. (2001). "Who Do We Hear?" Rethinking Schools, Fall 2001.Available at: http://www.rethinkingschools.org/Archives/16_01/Who161.htm

This elementary school teacher reflects on the ways teachers must be attuned to students' different ways of expressing mathematics knowledge. The three scenarios presented illustrate how crucial it is for educators, particularly White teachers working in racially diverse settings, to recognize the differences between their discourse patterns and those of their students. Teachers must expand the idea of what constitutes mathematical language, while also helping traditionally underserved students (namely girls, low-income students, and students of color) master the academic language of the dominant culture.

Artzt, Alice, and Claire Newman. (1998). How to Use Cooperative Learning in the Mathematics Classroom. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Starting off with some reasons why cooperative learning can benefit students with diverse learning needs, this book talks about some effective strategies for creating groups: to ensure heterogeneity teachers should set up groups; structuring group tasks so that each students must contribute to the work at hand helps students recognize their dependence on one another; peer teaching can be an effective learning tool; and assessment should look at whole-group work as well as individual's performance. The remainder of the book describes a range of cooperative group activities teachers can use in the mathematics classroom.

Banks, Cherry McGee and James Banks. (1995). "Equity Pedagogy: An Essential Component of Multicultural Education." Theory into Practice, Vol. 34 (No. 3), 152-158.

The authors describe equity pedagogy as a component of multicultural education that helps students develop the knowledge and skills necessary for functioning within and creating a just and democratic society. While strategies such as cooperative groups and culturally relevant instruction are part of good teaching, they alone do not constitute equity pedagogy. The power relationship between student and teacher must shift: students generate knowledge, construct their own interpretations of reality, and find multiple solutions. Teachers must pay attention to the complex backgrounds of each individual student and diversify their instruction accordingly.

Boaler, Jo. (1997). Experiencing School Mathematics: Teaching Styles, Sex, and Setting. Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

The author studied two high schools in England for three years as a way of assessing the effectiveness of their differing mathematical pedagogies. A chapter in the book on gender and learning styles discusses the benefits to girls of inquiry-based, student-driven, cooperative learning.

Bohn, Anita and Christine Sleeter. (2000). "Multicultural Education and the Standards Movement." Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 82 (No. 2), 156-159.

The push towards standards - and the subsequent standardization of the curriculum - stifles students' exploration and recognition of cultural diversity within a classroom. When diverse cultures are discussed it is usually as an add-on rather than integral to the curriculum. The end result is a disconnect between students' lives and textbook knowledge. The authors advocate for teachers examining their own multicultural knowledge base, racial identity, and the intellectual contributions of people from varied ethnicities. At the center of multicultural reform lies a dialogue across groups and a commitment to sharing power.

Campbell, Patricia and Jennifer Storo. (1994). Why Me? Why My Classroom?: The Need for Equity in Coed Math and Science Classes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Available at: http://www.campbell-kibler.com/

Contains statistics related to girls and math education, differences in the ways that teachers interact with girls and boys, and a reflection exercise designed to assess if a classroom is equitable.

Cohen, Elizabeth. (1972). Designing Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogeneous Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

For teachers both new to and experienced with group work, this book lays out the basics of designing cooperative groups while also asking educators to consider the potential equity issues involved in using such groups in the classroom. Chapters cover the rationale behind using cooperative groups, the teacher's role, expectations (both from the teacher and from students themselves), tools for evaluating group effectiveness and equity, groups in bilingual and multi-ability classrooms, and suggested activities.

Cohen, Elizabeth. (1998). "Making Cooperative Learning Equitable." Educational Leadership, Sept.

Cooperative learning activities can become inequitable if teachers do not attend to the status differences between students. Low-status members talk less than others, often their ideas are not taken seriously, and they have difficulty getting their hands on manipulatives. All of these behaviors lead to fewer and less-effective learning opportunities for such students. Status comes from academic performance, popularity among peers, attractiveness, gender, race, and class. To treat such status inequalities, teachers must convince students that: (1) Cooperative tasks require many types of abilities. (2) No one will have all of these abilities. (3) Everyone will have some of these abilities. Teachers can also assign competence to a student by giving a positive evaluation publicly that is truthful and on skills that are relevant to the group task.

Cohen, Elizabeth, and Rachel Lotan. (1995). "Producing Equity-Status Interaction in the Heterogeneous Classroom." American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 32 (No. 1), 99-120.

In heterogeneous classrooms students with high academic status are often treated differently from those with low status during cooperative group activities, with those perceived as having higher status dominating. The authors suggest teachers use multiple ability treatment - assigning competence to low-status students - as one tool to equalize status. This strategy involves teachers giving low-status students feedback that is public, specific, and valid that details a student's particular strengths as they relate to the task at hand. The study highlighted in this article supports the value of multiple ability treatments, with classroom and group interactions equalized between high- and low-status students after teacher intervention.

Cohen, Elizabeth, Rachel Lotan, Beth Scarloss, and Adele Arellano. (1999). "Complex Instruction: Equity in Cooperative Learning Classrooms." Theory into Practice, Vol. 38 (No. 2), 80-86.

While cooperative learning groups can promote equity in the classroom, they poses the potential problem of excluding students who are low-achieving or who are social isolates. In Complex Instruction (CI) classrooms students are assigned open-ended, interdependent group tasks and serve as academic and linguistic resources for each other. Achievement results show more gain for students in CI classes than students in comparison classes on higher-order thinking tasks. Teachers assign competence to students publicly as a way to boost the standing of low-status students. Educators also publicly recognize the varied skills of students through a process called multiple-abilities treatment.

Devenport, Linda Ruiz (1993, July). "The Effects of Homogenous Groupings in Mathematics". ERIC/CSMEE Digest. Available at: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed359065.html

Homogenous grouping, especially for higher level mathematics instruction is more prevalent in the United States than in any other country. There is growing concern about this practice and the belief that intellectual differences amongst students are so great that they need to be taught in separate groups and/or classes depending on different ability or achievement levels. When analyzing differences in math education not only between schools but also within schools, a study conducted by the National Science Foundation identified 3 areas of inequities in math instruction: access to strong math programs; access to well-qualified math teachers and; access to classroom opportunities. Tracking, particularly in secondary schools has shown to limit learning and ends up widening the achievement gaps between students. Citing different studies and providing examples, homogenous grouping is shown to have little effect on achievement. The long-term effects of tracking on female and minority students can be seen by their underrepresentation in the mathematics and sciences area

Delpit, Lisa. (1988). "The Silenced Dialogue: Power and Pedagogy in Educating Other People's Children." Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 58 (No. 3), 280-298.

Attacking the "skills" versus "process" debate, the author points out that the real issue in educating poor students and people of color rests in communicating across cultures and not in instructional methodology. Well-intentioned teachers who deflect power from themselves by using process-oriented approaches (e.g. whole language instruction, de-emphasis on the product of a student's work, etc.) in fact do a disservice to their students by not being explicit about the set of rules governing society at large. Instead educators should: instruct students on the codes needed to participate fully in mainstream society; use their own expert knowledge while also validating students' "expertness;" and talk with students about the arbitrariness of the codes and the power relationships they represent.

Fennema, Elizabeth and Penelope Peterson. (1986). "Teacher-Student Interactions and Sex-Related Differences in Learning Mathematics." Teacher and Teacher Education, Vol. 2 (No. 1), 19-42.

This study analyzed the effects of teacher-student interactions on high- and low-level mathematics achievement for girls and boys. Findings indicated that many interaction patterns that significantly affected girls' mathematical achievement had no impact on boys' achievement or were related significantly in the opposite direction. Teachers initiated interactions with boys more than with girls, gave strategies to solve a problem after an incorrect answer more often to boys than to their female peers, and offered less feedback to higher achieving girls after a correct response than to similarly achieving boys.

Fennema, Elizabeth, Penelope Peterson, Thomas Carpenter, and Cheryl Lubinski. (1990). "Teachers' Attributions and Beliefs About Girls, Boys, and Mathematics." Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 21 (No. 1), 55-69.

Teachers tend to attribute boys' mathematical successes and failures to ability and girls' successes and failures to effort. They described their best male students as more adventurous, volunteering more answers, enjoying math more, and more independent than their best female students.

Fennema, Elizabeth, Thomas P. Carpenter, Victoria R. Jacobs, Megan L. Franke, Susan B. Empson, and Linda W. Levi. (1996). "A Longitudinal Study of Learning to Use Children's Thinking in Mathematics Instruction." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 27 (No. 4) 403-434.

In this study teachers' use of Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) resulted in an improvement in students' math achievement and problem-solving abilities in particular. CGI encourages teachers to reflect on each child's mathematical thinking, to provide opportunities for varied problem-solving strategies, and to allow students' thinking to drive instruction.

Greene, Elizabeth (2000). "Good-Bye Pythagorous?" The Chronicle for Higher Education, October 6. Available at: http://www.rpi.edu/web/News/pythagoras.html

As we move towards globalization, it's become increasingly important to recognize and respect non-European methods of thought. Ethnomathematics, the teaching of math from a cultural perspective, attempts to contextualize and diversify math instruction. Although no empirical research has been conducted, ethnomathematics is thought to be more engaging and accessible to students. However, critics worry that incorporating diversity into all aspects of mathematics teaching takes away from the rigor of fundamental concepts of European-based mathematics that is needed to pursue higher levels of math as well as to enter fields that require a deeper understanding of math.

Haberman, Martin. (1991). "The Pedagogy of Poverty Versus Good Teaching." Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 73 (No. 4), 290-294.

The author compares the teaching methods typically practiced in urban classrooms - what he calls a "pedagogy of poverty" - to those advocated for by math reformers. While reform math proponents argue for the teaching of critical thinking, problem solving, and creativity, urban teaching in contrast consists of directive teacher acts, less complex tasks, and lower expectations for students. The article concludes with twelve behaviors (evidenced by what students are doing) signifying good teaching. Included in this list are: students being involved with issues they see as relevant to their lives; students learning major concepts and big ideas as opposed to isolated facts; students helping to plan what they will do; students working in heterogeneous groups; and students re-doing or perfecting their work.

Hanson, Katherine. (1992). "Teaching Mathematics Effectively and Equitably to Females." New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. To order call: 1-800-225-3088.

Hanson's report looks to both student-centered explanations (e.g. learning styles and attitudes towards mathematics) and pedagogy (e.g. teacher attitudes and curriculum content) as a way to explain gender differences in math achievement. Some of her findings include: young girls gain less experience than boys with core math concepts due to the kinds of toys geared toward each sex; strong social messages that math is for boys lead to girls self-selecting out of math-related activities as early as preschool; math curricula in middle and high school emphasizes skills (such as abstract concepts and spatial visualization) that girls often have less experience with in pre-school and at the primary level; girls receive more attention from teachers on product questions while boys receive more time on process (or higher order) questions. The report concludes with fifteen recommendations to help create an equitable climate in mathematics.

Howard, Gary R. (1999). We Can't Teach What We Don't Know: White Teachers, Multiracial Schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

Through personal experience, discovery and reflection, the author writes about the implications of being a white teacher in racially diverse schools. Topics covered are social and white dominance, the dynamics of dominance, racial identity development and a transformative approach to change. The book incorporates theoretical frameworks and practical situations that illustrate ways in which to achieve awareness and sensitivity to diverse students.

Jungwirth (1991). "Interaction and Gender: Findings of a Microethnographical Approach to Classroom Discourse", Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 22, 263-284.

The author of this study argues that what appears to be mathematical incompetence on the part of girls stems from the nature of their interactions with the teachers. Girls tend to avoid participating in class discussions when they are unclear on how to solve a problem, offer a "too complete description" for answers, have few opportunities to rework incorrect answers, and will say nothing instead of turning to the teacher's method of problem-solving (which then creates an appearance of failure).

Linchevski, Liora and Bilha Kutscher. (1998). "Tell Me With Whom You're Learning, and I'll Tell You How Much You've Learned: Mixed-Ability Grouping Versus Same-Ability Grouping in Mathematics." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 29 (No. 5), 533-554.

This study compared students in mixed-ability classrooms with those in same-ability settings to determine the effects of tracking on students of all ability levels. Results of the study revealed that (1) homogeneous groupings exacerbated achievement level differences between high- and low-ability students, whereas differences in heterogeneous groupings remained constant from the initial assessment, (2) the average scores for low-ability students in homogeneous groupings were significantly lower than those in mixed groups at the end of the study; the scores of high-level students in same-ability groups were not significantly higher than those in heterogeneous groups, and (3) while most teachers supported heterogeneous grouping, those who had more experience in mixed-ability classrooms held a more positive attitude toward it.

McCollum, Pam. (2001). "The Missing Piece of the Puzzle: Opportunities to Learn." IDRA Newsletter, Vol. 28 (No. 2), February. Available at: http://www.idra.org/Newslttr/2001/Feb/Pam.htm#Art2

Concern about the ways immigrant students get lost in the drive for standards and accountability, the author proposes a series of opportunity-to-learn standards for recent English as a Second Language learners. ESL programs must enable students to use English for academic content. Amendments must be made to existing policies to accommodate the needs of ESL students. All teachers must be skilled in ESL instruction. Teachers must understand their students' cultural backgrounds. Teachers must understand the basics of educational linguistics. School staff must be able to explain standards in a student's native language. School staff must be able to communicate standards to families. Teachers must be granted sufficient planning time. Relationships between schools, organizations, and business that give students opportunities to grow must be solidified.

Metropolitan Life Company. (1997). "The Metropolitan Life Survey of the American Teacher." New York: Author.

Findings from this study show that girls are as likely as boys to aim high, to be competitive in school, and to be as confident as boys that they will achieve their future goals. Girls also report a positive relationship with their teachers, indicating that they believe they are treated as fairly as boys are, and receive as much encouragement and feedback as boys do from their teachers.

Miller, Kristelle, Jane Maddy, Lori Schoch, Helen Rallis, and Billy Jo Hennager. (1997). "Gender Equity in the Elementary Classroom: The Effects of Intervention with Teaching Methods." Gender and Race on the Campus and in the School, Washington, D.C.: American Association of University Women.

The five fourth-grade teachers in this study participated in an equity intervention program called Gender/Ethnic Expectations and Student Achievement (GESA). They learned about four teaching behaviors that tend to be biased in favor of boys: response opportunities, wait time, probing, and level of questioning. Outcomes from the intervention showed that (1) practices favoring boys over girls decreased; (2) in one classroom students' self-concept significantly increased while in two classrooms it significantly decreased; and (3) teachers' use of follow-up probing questions had a significant negative impact on girls' self-concept.

Nieto, Sonia. (1999). The Light in Their Eyes: Creating Multicultural Learning Communities. New York: Teachers College Press.

Rather than conceiving of multicultural education as a series of activities and lessons that can be added on to the "regular" curriculum, the editor of this volume suggests that a transformation within schools, classrooms, and individuals is needed to truly connect with students from diverse backgrounds. The seven broad categories covered in this book include: the social context of learning; learning and inequality; culture and learning; institutional transformation to promote learning; critical pedagogy; the personal and collective transformation of teachers; and creating learning communities.

Reyes, L.H. and G. Stanic. (1988). "Gender and Race Equity in Primary and Middle School Mathematics Classrooms." Arithmetic Teacher, Vol. 35, 46-48.

This article asks teachers to reflect on the achievement patterns of the students in their classrooms as a window into equity. It offers suggestions on how to create a more equitable mathematics classroom, such as examining personal attitudes, pushing all students to be persistent in problem-solving, and videotaping the classroom.

Strutchens, Marilyn (1995, March). "Multicultural Mathematics: A More Inclusive Mathematics". ERIC. Available at: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed380295.html

The absence of students� culture in mathematics teaching is thought to be a significant barrier to the achievement of students traditionally underrepresented in mathematics. In order to engage and empower these students five dimensions of multicultural education have been identified; content integration; knowledge construction; prejudice reduction; equitable pedagogy; and empowering school culture and social structure. These dimensions are further illuminated indicating implications for teaching mathematics.

Tate, W.F. (1995). "Returning to the Root: A Culturally Relevant Approach to Mathematics Pedagogy." Theory Into Practice, Vol. 34 (No. 3), 166-173.

The author asserts that traditional mathematics teaching does not draw from the cultural experiences of African American students. He encourages teachers to develop a culturally relevant pedagogical approach that focuses on mathematics problems based on students' own experiences and that asks students to reflect on the social implications of the answers to those problems.

Thousand, Jacqueline, Richard Villa, and Ann Nevin, Eds. (1994). Creativity and Cooperative Learning: A Practical Guide to Empowering Students and Teachers. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

The first eight chapters present an overview of various topics related to cooperative group learning in the primary grades through higher education, such as inclusive classrooms, cooperative education teams, and student disruptions. A list of lesson ideas follows that spans various subject areas and grade levels. Chapters on peer tutoring and peer mediation, building connections among students, and creating new behaviors in the classroom round out the last two sections of the book.

Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (1995). "Differentiating Instruction for Advanced Learners in the Mixed-Ability Middle School Classroom." ERIC Digest E536.

Given that a typical (middle school) classroom has students with different interests, learning preferences, degrees of readiness and learning levels, there is a need for differentiated instruction. With a focus on the needs of academically advanced students in middle schools, this digest illustrates what a differentiated classroom should look like. This includes concentrating on concept and principle, while providing flexible grouping, on-going assessment of student readiness as well as treating students as "active explorers", thereby concentrating on the student's learning process rather than their ability to collect and regurgitate information. A comprehensive approach and specific strategies to achieve a differentiated classroom are provided to help teachers figure out what will work best for their classroom.

Trentacosta, J. (Ed.). (1997). Multicultural and Gender Equity in the Mathematics Classroom. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

This collection of articles covers a range of topics related to teaching reform mathematics. Several of the essays speak to individual teachers' experiences in creating a more equitable classroom. Chapters to note are: "Uncovering Bias in the Classroom-a Personal Journey;" "Know Thyself: The Evolution of an Intervention Gender-Equity Program; " and "The Complexity of Teaching for Gender Equity."

Volpe, Betty. (1999). "A Girls' Math Olympiad Team." Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, Vol. 4 (No. 5), 290-293.

Sixth-grade math teacher Betty Volpe recounts the experiences of the students who participated in an all-girls after school Math Olympiad club. Girls in the club reported more confidence in their ability as mathematicians, and took more risks in solving math problems in the context of the single-sex club.

Willis, Scott & Larry Mann. (2000). "Differentiating Instruction; Finding Manageable Ways to Meet Individual Needs." Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Curriculum Update. Available at: http://www.ascd.org/framecupdate.html

Educators acknowledge the value of modifying instruction to cater to the diverse needs of students. The method to effectively differentiate instruction entails looking at the content of subject material, the process by which it's learned and the product of how this is demonstrated by the student. Content should be broad and remain constant for all students, while level of complexity may differ depending on level. Process and product should also vary according to level and preference of learning style. Although flexible grouping and "tiered activities" are imperative, there is no one right way to approach differentiating instruction. In addition to these techniques, a recommendation of different strategies is delineated for teachers to use.

Zucker, Andrew (1995). "Emphasizing Conceptual Understanding and Breadth of Study in Mathematics", in Knapp, Michael S. (Ed.) Teaching for Meaning in High-Poverty Classrooms. New York: Teacher's College Press.

Elementary mathematics reform aims for the achievement of rapid and accurate arithmetic computation while reducing the amount of time and effort spent on this, so that more time could be spent on higher-order thinking skills. With a math reform agenda that entails a wider range of content than in the past, the actuality is that very little has changed in math education in the past Century. Conventional practices should be replaced with reform strategies that maximize meaning in mathematics instruction by focusing on conceptual understanding of math and by expanding the range of mathematics content. 4 patterns of math instruction are identified to address this goal; emphasizing breadth of study and conceptual understanding, emphasizing breadth of study and discrete learning skills, emphasizing arithmetic and conceptual understand, and emphasizing arithmetic and discrete learning skills.