Weaving Gender Equity - Educational Reform

The following is a list of research articles and books related to educational reform:

Campbell, Patricia. (1996). "Empowering Children and Teachers in the Elementary Mathematics Classrooms of Urban Schools." Urban Education, Vol. 30 (No. 4), 449-475.

Project IMPACT offered a 22-day summer in-service program for teachers with predominantly minority students. IMPACT helped teachers work with the existing knowledge of their students, to frame instruction within meaningful contexts, to focus on problem solving, and to expect every student to engage in mathematical inquiry. Assessment results demonstrated higher achievement for students in the IMPACT treatment schools, particularly on items dealing with mathematical abstraction. In-school math specialists and supportive principals, along with the summer in-service program, contributed the efficacy of IMPACT.

Civil Rights Alert (1999). "Testing: The Need and Dangers." The Civil Rights Project - Harvard University. Available at: http://www.law.harvard.edu/civilrights/alerts/testing.html

High stakes testing can be beneficial to gauge academic performance and to subsequently motivate higher levels of achievement. However, such testing has also proven to be discriminatory and most damaging to the academic future of minority and low-income students. Civil Rights Project conducted a study in which high stakes testing was found to be detrimental because they tend to penalize students - particularly minorities - rather than motivate them to reach higher levels of achievement. Legal avenues and steps to promote community activism are provided to protect the civil rights of minority students if itÕs believed that testing and school policy is hurting opportunities available to them.

Clinchy, Evans. (2001). "Needed: A New Educational Civil Rights Movement." Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 82 (No. 7), 493-498. Available at: http://www.pdkintl.org/kappan/kcli0103.htm

The author describes the re-entrenchment of educational inequities based on several trends. He points to the resegregation of America's schools, the unrealistic vision of Goals 2000 coupled with its accountability measures, and retention policies as indicators of an education reform vision gone awry. He exposes the ties the business community has to elected officials in pushing this reform agenda. Clinchy concludes by proposing a new civil rights movement rooted in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights which affords every person the right to an education, an education system supportive of multiple learning styles, and the ability of parents to make choices about their children's education.

Council for Basic Education. (2000). Closing the Gap: A Report on the Windspread Conference. Available at: http://www.c-b-e.org/stclogap.htm

This conference identified four key components in successful education reform: helping every student reach high standards; improving educator capacity; accountability and assessment systems; and public will/community engagement Some of the recommendations to come out of the conference include increasing teacher capacity in instructional strategies, revisiting and revising standards, ending social promotion, implement an urban strategy, and focus resources on those students who need them most.

Cruz-Janzen, Marta. (2000). From Our Readers: Preparing Preservice Teacher Candidates for Leadership in Equity." Equity and Excellence, Vol. 33 (No. 1), 94-101.

The author sets the tone for this article by arguing that in order to support students of all backgrounds educators must address the whole human being rather than considering race, class, national origin, or gender in isolation. She urges teachers not to view multicultural education as something relating only to people of color, or as something that is "added on" to the curriculum. A key component of successfully tackling equity requires educators to look at their own experiences and socialization process.

Darling-Hammond, Linda. (1999). "New Standards, Old Inequalities: The Current Challenge for African-American Education." in The State of Black America 1999. New York: National Urban League.

While many of the education reform efforts are worthwhile, standards and testing alone will not eliminate the long-standing disparities in education between White students and students of color. Investments in better teaching, curriculum, and schooling must accompany the new standards, rather than keeping in place the old system of educational inequality. Urban schools, which tend to be concentrated with Black and Hispanic students, must have access to standards-based curricula if they are expected to take state tests aligned with those curricula. Educators must address the structural inequities urban schools face - lower funding levels, fewer qualified teachers, and fewer materials and equipment.

Demmert, William. (1999). "Personal Perspectives on Organizational Issues in the Standards-Based Education Movement." in MCREL, Including Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students in Standards-Based Reform. Available at: http://www.mcrel.org/products/diversity/roundtable.asp

High-quality instruction and a challenging curriculum do not stand as the sole answers to the question of how to achieve high standards for all students. Educators should also look at a framework consisting of six elements - equity, curriculum, teachers and administration, school environment and culture, school ownership and community support, and organizational issue. Several questions guiding this framework are: Do all students have access to quality instruction and full participation in the education system? Are minority perspectives and contributions recognized as part of the curriculum? Are teachers and administrators knowledgeable and supportive of the language and cultural base of the community?

Education Development Center, Inc. (1995). Equity in Education Series.Newton, MA: WEEA Publishing Center. To order call: 1-800-225-3088.

This series of four pamphlets tackles various equity issues related to reform. Titles include: "School-to-Work Equitable Outcomes"; "Gender Stereotypes: The Links to Violence"; "Gender Equity for Educators, Parents, and Community"; and "Gender-Fair Math."

Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education. (1999). "Ideas For Reform." On-line. [http://www.enc.org/reform/]

With extensive links to reform-related articles and resources, this web site provides links to ENC's Making Schools Work For Every Child, the Teacher Change web project, information on TIMSS, and a list of reform-related articles. Included is an article by Mary Jo Powell titled "Equity in the Reform of Mathematics and Science Education," which explores ideas for infusing equity into school reform.

Fennema, Elizabeth, Thomas P. Carpenter, and Megan Franke. (1996). "Cognitively Guided Instruction: A Knowledge Base for Reform in Primary Mathematics Instruction." The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 97 (No. 1) 3-20.

Fennema, et al argue that Cognitively Guided Instruction provides an effective pedagogy for teachers to use in their mathematics classrooms. By centering on understanding students' thinking, CGI trains teachers on how to capitalize on the mathematical knowledge children bring to school and how use this in the constructivist classroom. Teachers reflect on their students' mathematical problem solving strategies, and use this as a basis for constructing their own instructional materials and practices.

Glass, Thomas E. (2000). "Where are all the Women Superintendents?" The School Administrator, American Association of School Administrators (AASA). Available at: http://www.aasa.org/publications/sa/2000_06/glass.htm

Although 72percent of K-12 educators in this country are women, only 13.2percent of Superintendents are women. Based on "2000 Study of the American School Superintendency," AASA found that women are not in positions that typically lead to the superintendency and that they are not pursuing superintendent's credentials in preparation programs. It seems that women are not as experienced or interested in the districtwide fiscal management aspect of the position as men are. In addition, differences in gender roles indicate that the superintendency does not provide a balance between work and family life so that there is a personal preference to chose against the position. A strategy suggested to rectify the discrepancy in female representation is to change the nature of the position. This may be accomplished by reducing the administrative workload, shifting fiscal management to the responsibility of an assistant superintendent, providing incentives to gain superintendent certification as well as rewarding districts and search firms for hiring women or minority superintendents.

Gross, Fred. (2000). "Facing Equity: Facing Ourselves." Hands On!, Vol. 23 (No. 1), 8-10. Available at: http://www.terc.edu/handson/handson.html

As an experienced facilitator of equity workshops for teachers and school administrators, the author reflects on the components of staff development necessary for instilling real change in practice. Gross points to the value in having educators reflect deeply about their own beliefs and biases as part of the change process. He cites activities such as confronting stereotypes and acknowledging the White, middle class behaviors teachers have in mind when they think of their ideal student as two ways to uncover bias. He ends by stressing the need to create a safe environment in which individuals can express their emotions and productively disagree with one another.

McNeil, Linda. (2000). "Creating New Inequalities: Contradictions of Reform." Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 81 (No. 10), 729-734.

The Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS) test represents a shining example to many policy makers of a successful accountability system. However, the implementation of this high-stakes test has led to increasing inequalities between White students and students of color. When the TAAS was first given to students in Texas, scores for students of color were significantly lower than those for White students. The response of educators was to provide training to minority students to help give scores a boost. But since the test focuses primarily on basic skills, this prep time has resulted in students of color receiving instruction on remedial skills while White students benefit from more rigorous curriculum and instruction.

National Science Foundation. (1998). Infusing Equity In Systemic Reform: An Implementation Scheme. Reston, VA: Author.

Intended to aid leaders of NSF Systemic Initiatives, this book outlines the issues involved in the pursuit of equity and excellence for all students. In addition to describing NSF's priorities in this area, it lists strategies for achieving equity, an assessment tool for schools and districts that measures how equitable they are, and a description of how to weave equity in to curriculum and instruction.

Nelson-Barber, Sharon. (1999). "A Better Education for Every Child: The Dilemma for Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students." in MCREL, Including Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students in Standards-Based Reform. Available at: http://www.mcrel.org/products/diversity/roundtable.asp

Debunking the idea that "good teaching" in one cultural context may not transfer to another, the author looks at the intersection of standards-based reform and American Indigenous culture. Many practices found in standards-based reform - cooperative groups, hands-on learning, and real-world contexts - complement the cultures of many indigenous groups. Yet teachers may not be aware of other aspects of those cultures - long wait time before answering, nonverbal responses, and learning through observation/direct experience - that are not necessarily addressed in the formal curriculum but which also influence student learning.

Oakes, Jeannie. (1990). Multiplying Inequalities: The Effects of Race, Social Class, and Tracking on Opportunities to Learn Mathematics and Science. Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation.

Oakes looks at the question of whether "different types of students have different opportunities to learn science and mathematics." Students in high-ability tracks (which is largely White, Asian, and middle- and high-income students) are pushed to develop higher level thinking and problem solving skills, spend more time with hands-on activities, spend less time on "math facts," and have fewer quizzes and tests. Low-ability tracks, on the other hand, have more drill and practice, more worksheets, and more tests. Low-income students have less access to the best-qualified mathematics and science teachers and to quality classroom resources and facilities.

Oakes, Jeannie and Martin Lipton. (1994). "Tracking and Ability Grouping: A Structural Barrier to Access and Achievement." in Joan Goodland and Pamela Keating (Eds.) Access to Knowledge: The Continuing Agenda for Our Nation's Schools. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

School and classroom tracking - which disproportionately places poor, Black, and Hispanic students in low- or average-ability classes - creates further disparities in achievement levels between those groups and non-poor, White students. Though arguments in support of tracking claim that children learn best with others of similar ability, the authors cite numerous studies that show high-ability students are not harmed by heterogeneous groupings while lower-ability students receive an inferior education when tracked. Furthermore, in tracked settings higher-ability students are taught abstract ideas, conceptual thinking skills, and problem solving methods, while students in lower tracks only receive instruction on basic mathematics and literacy skills. One step towards having successful mixed-ability classrooms is to utilize curricula that are organized around concepts and major themes, with lessons emphasizing complex thinking based in real-life contexts.

Sacks, Peter (2000). "Predictable Losers in Testing Schemes" The School Administrator, American Association of School Administrators (AASA). Available at: http://www.aasa.org/publications/sa/2000_12/sacks.htm

The dependence on high stakes testing to increase student performance levels has resulted in a "cult of measurement" in which testing has become synonymous with educational quality despite the fact that there is little evidence to support this. The use of tests to divide and discriminate against minorities is embedded in American history. A criticism of the accountability movement points to their failure to address discrepancies in test scores between rich and poor by looking at larger societal problems. Race and socio-economic background adversely predict performance on high stakes tests but high stakes accountability makes no attempt to address societal ills such as crime, poverty and racial inequity. School systems are at the mercy of social, political and business forces and cannot be viewed as separate entities in a controlled environment. Instead of reinforcing over-dependency on high stakes testing, there should be long term investments targeting poor and minority communities to improve education resources with more money, smaller classes and pre-school programs.

Sirotnik, Kenneth. (1994). "Equal Access to Quality in Public Schools: Issues in the Assessment of Equity and Excellence." in John Goodland and Pamela Keating (Eds.) Access to Knowledge: The Continuing Agenda for Our Nation's Schools. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

Students are labeled and then sorted into educational tracks based on qualities such as intelligence, achievement, and self-concept. Yet these are abstract, human constructs that do not really measure how well one performs in school. The author discusses four working assumptions to guide his discussion on equity and excellence: (1) There are no systematic differences in human learning potential other than those attributable to individual variation itself. (2) Schooling environments can be created within which most students can achieve high levels of learning with a common curriculum. (3) A quality common curriculum does not need to be overly detailed so that it limits creative implementation at the local level. (4) Information on the quality of schooling should at least contain information on standardized achievement tests, educational conditions, and other qualitative and quantitative measures. The article concludes with a list of data which should be used by schools to assess equity and excellence in their institutions.

Solis, Adela (2000, February). Equity Principles and School Reform: What it Takes to Ensure that "All Means All". IDRA Newsletter. Available at: http://www.idra.org/Newslttr/2000/Feb/Adela.htm#Art2 The Improving AmericaÕs Schools Act of 1994 calls for education reform, especially for low achieving children. While there are publications, procedures and criteria delineated for successful school reform, an equity component of reform has not been addressed so as to reach all students. There needs to be a clear articulation of the relationship between reform initiatives and the effort to eliminate discriminatory actions in schools. In order to embrace the concept of "All Means All", the Intercultural Development Research Association (IDRA) seeks to promote equity in schools through its technical assistance services. Examples are provided for how IDRA has tackled this issue, including defining goals and conditions of equity and how to link equity to comprehensive school reform models and programs.

Swope, Kathy, and Barbara Miner, Eds. (2000). Failing Our Kids: Why the Testing Craze Won't Fix Our Schools. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools, Ltd. To order call: 1-800-669-4192.

The contributors to this publication argue that the trend towards "accountability" in the form of high-stakes standardized testing damages public schooling and creates further inequities in education. Essays detail the history of standardized testing with its roots in the racist eugenics movement, the ways the testing trend has negatively impacted classroom practice, the political and business forces driving the push for more accountability, and the ways testing disenfranchises students of color and low-income students. Also included are alternatives to high-stakes tests, stories of parents and students taking action, and a list of state and national groups working on the issue.

Tate, William. (1995). "School Mathematics and African American Students: Thinking Seriously About Opportunity to Learn Standards." Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 31 (No. 3), 424-448.

The author looks at the appropriateness of opportunity-to-learn standards as an equity framework for supporting African American students' mathematical achievement. Opportunity-to-learn variables include content coverage, content exposure, content emphasis, and quality of instruction, and are designed to measure whether or not students are provided sufficient access to learn the material. One issue confronting school reform is the emphasis on teaching to standardized tests in classrooms with high percentages of African American students; this is particularly problematic when the tests emphasizes low-level skills. Another issue stems from fiscal inequities. Eighty percent of teachers of middle- to upper-class students received all or most of the materials they requested, compared to only 41% of teachers in schools with concentrations of poor students. Third, classroom content and practice is often disconnected from the experiences and traditions of African American students. These and other factors decrease such students opportunities-to-learn.

Vermont Institute for Science, Math and Technology. (1994). "Equity Benchmarks for Vermont." Randolph Center, VT: Author. Available at: http://www.vismt.org/pub/

VISMT's Equity Advisory Committee developed this list of equity benchmarks to guide school reformers in their efforts to improve learning for all students. The benchmarks cover areas such as curriculum, classroom climate, assessment, access to technology, and professional development. The third part of the document lists a six-point Equity Reality Check that invites administrators and teachers to assess the educational equity in their districts and schools.

Vermont Institute for Science, Math and Technology. (1994). "Equity Benchmarks for Vermont." Randolph Center, VT: Author. Available at: http://www.vismt.org/pub/

Vermont Institute for Science, Math, and Technology. (1998). "The Opportunity to Learn." Available at: http://www.vismt.org/pub/

"How can my school work best for all students? How is technology related to equity? What are our students learning at school?" These are some of the guiding questions that this manual poses for parents and community members. Each question category presents background information, an example of an inequitable situation, things to consider, a more equitable scenario, and questions for parents about how their child's school is doing.

Weissglass, Julian, Ed. (1997). If Not Now, When? If Not Us, Who? Raising Equity Issues in Educational Settings. Santa Barbara, CA: Center for Educational Change in Mathematics and Science. To order call: (805) 893-7722

This workbook contains a series of vignettes, essays, assessment tools, and perspectives designed to elicit discussion from educators concerned about equity in education reform. Definitions of equity are presented, as well as twelve perspectives on equity that provide a theoretical foundation for social change work. Question prompts, extensions, and suggestions for discussion methods/guidelines are also included.

Weissglass, Julian. (2000). "No Compromise on Equity in Mathematics Education: Developing an Infrastructure." in Walter Secada (Ed.) Changing Faces of Mathematics: Perspectives on Multiculturalism and Gender Equity. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Advocates have numerous viewpoints regarding what equity means. Among these are that equity means: (1) access (2) proportional outcomes (3) equality (4) political change and (5) social, psychological, and institutional change. Unfortunately there currently exists no infrastructure for establishing equity as a part of the mathematics reform agenda. The author calls for a realignment so that equity becomes a central focus of the mathematics education reform movement. He then lays out twelve perspectives used during the Equity in Mathematics Education Leadership Institute (EMELI) that guide this work.

Wilgoren, Jodi. (2001). "Algebra Project: Bob Moses Empowers Students." New York Times, January 7.

Acclaimed civil rights activist and mathematician Bob Moses developed the Algebra Project based on the theory that mastering algebra by the 8th grade will ensure access to college-prep curriculum, higher education and ultimately success in modern society. Acknowledging inequities in existing curriculum and access to math, methods used are culturally sensitive, contextual and geared toward low-income minority students. There is an emphasis to show students how math permeates everyday life. In Cambridge, MA, 92percent of Algebra Project participants went on to take higher lever math courses in the 9th grade, which is twice the rate of their peers in the city. The reform includes a system in which teachers are trained with the 5-step philosophy of teaching that can be applied to any concept: physical experience; pictorial representation; people talk (your own words); feature talk (proper English); symbolic representation. Moses' life works, legacy and current book Radical Equations are also discussed.

Zernike, Kate. (2000). "Race-Ties Rating of Schools Poses Problem for Suburbia." New York Times, May 9.

New York State Board of Regents decided to include how well Black and Latino students score on standardized tests as part of a school district's rating. This move will force schools to address gaps in achievement between White students and students of color that have persisted throughout the state. While many superintendents support the state in highlighting the achievement gap, they caution that systemic change requires time rather than quick fixes.